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50 Things That Made the Modern Economy - Tax Havens
The economist Gabriel Zucman is the inventor of an ingenious way to estimate the amount of wealth hidden in the offshore banking system. In theory, if you add up the assets and liabilities reported by every global financial centre, the books should balance. But they don’t. Each individual centre tends to report more liabilities than assets. Zucman crunched the numbers and found that, globally, total liabilities were eight percent higher than total assets. That suggests at least eight percent of the world’s wealth is illegally unreported. Other methods have come up with even higher estimates. As Tim Harford explains, that makes the tax haven a very significant feature of the modern economy.
Editors: Richard Knight and Richard Vadon
Producer: Ben Crighton
(Image: Huts along tropical beach, Credit: DonLand/Shutterstock)
Undiscovered - The Wastebook
After a senator calls her research a waste of taxpayer dollars, biologist Sheila Patek heads to Capitol Hill to prove what her science is worth.
In December 2015, the fight over science funding got personal for biologist Sheila Patek. She discovered that a U.S. Senator, Jeff Flake of Arizona, had included her research on mantis shrimp in his “wastebook”: a list of federally-funded projects he deemed a waste of taxpayer money. So what did Patek do? She headed to Capitol Hill to make the case to Senator Flake—and to Congress—that blue-sky science is worth the money.
GUESTS
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Sheila Patek, Professor of Biology, Duke University
Bryan Berky, Executive Director, Restore Accountability
Paula Stephan, Professor of Economics, Georgia State University, author of How Economics Shapes Science
Melinda Baldwin, science historian, author of Making Nature: The History of a Scientific Journal
FOOTNOTES
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Read Sen. Jeff Flake’s 2015 Wastebook "The Farce Awakens," and his science-themed 2016 Wastebook “Twenty Questions.”
Watch two mantis shrimp duke it out!
Read Melinda Baldwin’s article on the grand-daddy of the modern waste report: Sen. William Proxmire.
Read about Congressman Jim Cooper’s answer to Sen. Proxmire’s “Golden Fleece Award”: the “Golden Goose Award."
Read the National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s 2014 report Furthering America’s Research Enterprise, detailing the benefits of federal science investment (and the difficulty of measuring them).
Learn more about Restore Accountability and read their response to the episode.
Watch Sheila Patek’s PBS NewsHour essay about her meeting with Sen. Flake, and read about current research at the Patek Lab.
How much does the federal government spend on R&D? Here’s how much!
CREDITS
This episode of Undiscovered was reported and produced by Annie Minoff and Elah Feder. Editing by Christopher Intagliata. Fact-checking help by Michelle Harris. Original music by Daniel Peterschmidt. Our theme music is by I am Robot and Proud. Art for this episode by Claire Merchlinsky. Thanks to Science Friday’s Danielle Dana, Christian Skotte, Brandon Echter, and Rachel Bouton.
50 Things That Made the Modern Economy - Infant Formula
Not every baby has a mother who can breastfeed. Indeed, not every baby has a mother. In the early 1800s, only two in three babies who weren’t breastfed lived to see their first birthday. Many were given “pap”, a bread-and-water mush, from hard-to-clean receptacles that teemed with bacteria. But in 1865 Justus von Liebig invented Soluble Food for Babies – a powder comprising cow’s milk, wheat flour, malt flour and potassium bicarbonate. It was the first commercial substitute for breastmilk and, as Tim Harford explains, it has helped shape the modern workplace.
Editors: Richard Knight and Richard Vadon
Producer: Ben Crighton
(Image: Baby lying down drinking from bottle, Credit: Lopolo/Shutterstock)
Undiscovered - Six Degrees
Are you just six handshakes away from every other person on Earth? Two mathematicians set out to prove we’re all connected.
You have probably heard the phrase “six degrees of separation,” the idea that you’re connected to everyone else on Earth by a chain of just six people. It has inspired a Broadway play, a film nerd’s game, called “Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon”...and even a No Doubt song! But is it true? In the ‘90s, two mathematicians set out to discover just how connected we really are—and ended up launching a new field of science in the process.
Annie holds one of Milgram’s “Letter Experiment” mailings sent to June Shields in Wichita, Kansas. Accessed at the Yale University archives. (Credit: Elah Feder)
A version of psychologist Stanley Milgram’s “Letter Experiment” mailings. “Could you, as an active American, contact another American citizen regardless of his walk of life?” Milgram and his team wrote. They asked for recipients' help in finding out. Accessed at the Yale University archives. (Credit: Elah Feder)
(Original art by Claire Merchlinsky)
GUESTS
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Duncan Watts, Principal Researcher at Microsoft Research, author of Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age
Steven Strogatz, Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Applied Mathematics at Cornell University, author of Sync
Andrew Leifer, Assistant Professor in the Department of Physics and the Princeton Neuroscience Institute at Princeton University
FOOTNOTES
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Read Duncan Watts’ and Steven Strogatz’s breakthrough 1998 Nature paper on small-world networks.
Read Stanley Milgram’s 1967 article about his letter experiment in Psychology Today.
Watch Duncan and Steve discuss the past and future of small-world networks at Cornell.
Watch C. elegans' brain glow! And read more about the brain imaging work happening in Andrew Leifer’s lab.
Browse the small-world network of C. elegans’ 302 neurons at wormweb.org.
Read Facebook’s analysis of Facebook users’ “degrees of separation.”
Just for funsies, a network analysis of Game of Thrones.
CREDITS
This episode of Undiscovered was reported and produced by Annie Minoff and Elah Feder. Editing by Christopher Intagliata. Fact-checking help by Michelle Harris. Original music by Daniel Peterschmidt. Additional music by Podington Bear and Lee Rosevere. Our theme music is by I am Robot and Proud. Art for this episode by Claire Merchlinsky. Story consulting by Ari Daniel. Engineering help from Sarah Fishman. Recording help from Alexa Lim. Thanks to Science Friday’s Danielle Dana, Christian Skotte, Brandon Echter, and Rachel Bouton.
Crimetown - Bonus Episode: The Arrest of Ralph DeMasi
80-year-old Ralph DeMasi is known throughout New England as both a prolific armored-car robber and a dedicated family man. After decades in prison, he thought he would live out his last years in freedom. Then the police made a break in a cold case, and now Ralph has a new charge on his long rap sheet: murder.
For a full list of credits, and more information about this episode, visit our website at crimetownshow.com.
Read Dan Barry’s New York Times article about Ralph DeMasi, “The Holdup: A Mobster, a Family and the Crime That Won’t Let Them Go.”
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Undiscovered - Sick and Tired
When researchers publish a new study on chronic fatigue syndrome, a group of patients cry foul—and decide to investigate for themselves.
A landmark study on chronic fatigue syndrome sets off a multi-year battle between patients and scientists. On one side, we have a team of psychiatrists who have researched the condition for decades, and have peer-reviewed studies to back up their conclusions. On the other, a group of patients who know this condition more intimately than anyone and set out to expose what they think is bad science.
(Original art by Claire Merchlinsky)
A note to our listeners:
This episode references studies that are both controversial and complex. Our interest is always to provide accurate and complete information to our listeners, and to provide context in which the science we cover can be understood. To that end, we’d like to share additional information on the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy and graded exercise therapy as treatments for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS). Two systematic reviews (studies of studies) by The Cochrane Collaboration examine cognitive behavioral therapy and exercise as treatments for ME/CFS. These may help contextualize the findings of the PACE trial and aid our listeners in drawing their own conclusions.
GUESTS
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Julie Rehmeyer, author of "Through the Shadowlands"
Michael Sharpe professor of psychological medicine at Oxford University
David Tuller, journalist and visiting lecturer at UC Berkeley
Ivan Oransky, journalist and co-founder of Retraction Watch
FOOTNOTES
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The PACE trial home page, includes trial materials, FAQ, and links to the papers that came out of the trial.
The PACE trial data and readme file.
Virology Blog including David Tuller’s original three part series criticizing PACE (“Trial by Error”), as well as responses from the authors, and more.
Patients’ first reanalysis (published on the Virology Blog) of the PACE recovery paper.
They later published the re-analysis in the journal Fatigue and the PACE researchers responded to the patients’ re-analysis.
PLOS ONE expression of concern, including a response from the authors.
Retraction Watch’s recap of the legal proceedings regarding Alem Matthees’ request for anonymized trial data.
CREDITS
This episode of Undiscovered was reported and produced by Elah Feder and Annie Minoff. Editing by Christopher Intagliata. Thanks to Science Friday’s Danielle Dana, Christian Skotte, Brandon Echter, and Rachel Bouton. Fact-checking help by Michelle Harris. Original music by Daniel Peterschmidt. Our theme music is by I am Robot and Proud. Art for this episode by Claire Merchlinsky.
50 Things That Made the Modern Economy - Tally Stick
Tally sticks were made from willow harvested along the banks of the Thames in London. The stick would contain a record of the debt. It might say, for example, “9£ 4s 4p from Fulk Basset for the farm of Wycombe”. Fulk Basset, by the way, might sound like a character from Star Wars but was in fact a Bishop of London in the 13th century. He owed his debt to King Henry III. Now comes the elegant part. The stick would be split in half, down its length from one end to the other. The debtor would retain half, called the “foil”. The creditor would retain the other half, called the “stock”. (Even today British bankers use the word “stocks” to refer to debts of the British government.) Because willow has a natural and distinctive grain, the two halves would match only each other. As Tim Harford explains, the tally stick system enabled something radical to occur. If you had a tally stock showing that Bishop Basset owed you five pounds, then unless you worried that Bishop Basset wasn’t good for the money, the tally stock itself was worth close to five pounds in its own right - like money; a kind of debt, which can be traded freely.
Editors: Richard Knight and Richard Vadon
Producer: Ben Crighton
(Photo: Medieval tally sticks, accounts of the bailiff of Ralph de Manton of the Ufford Church Northampton. Credit: National Archives)
Undiscovered - Born This Gay
At the turn of the 20th century, a German doctor sets out to prove that homosexuality is rooted in biology—but his research has consequences he never intended.
In pre-Nazi Germany, a doctor named Magnus Hirschfeld sets out to take down Paragraph 175, a law against “unnatural fornication” between men. Hirschfeld’s plan is to scientifically prove that homosexuality is natural, and that lesbians and gay men might be born gay—but his idea ends up falling into the wrong hands.
Party at the Institute for Sexual Science. Magnus Hirschfeld (second from right) is the one with the moustache and glasses. His partner Karl Giese is holding his hand.
(United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
German students parade in front of the Institute for Sexual Research prior to their raid on the building. The students occupied and pillaged the Institute, then confiscated the Institute's books and periodicals for burning. (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
German students and Nazi SA plunder the library of Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld. The materials were loaded onto trucks and carted away for burning. The public library of the Institute comprised approximately 10,000 mostly rare German and foreign books on the topics of sex and gender. (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
(Original art by Claire Merchlinsky)
GUESTS
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Robert Beachy is the author of Gay Berlin: Birthplace of a Modern Identity.
Ralf Dose is the co-founder of the Magnus Hirschfeld Society and author of Magnus Hirschfeld: The Origins of the Gay Liberation Movement.
Edward Stein is the author of the The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation.
FOOTNOTES
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Read (in German) Sappho And Socrates, a booklet Magnus Hirschfeld published under a pseudonym in 1896, defending homosexuality.
Read Magnus Hirschfeld’s grand opus, "The Homosexuality of Men and Women."
Modern studies:
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A BBC article about the first study correlating finger length ratios and sexual orientation.
A meta-analysis of finger length ratios and sexual orientation.
These studies looked at finger length ratios in transgender men and women, with conflicting results.
Dean Hamer’s X chromosome linkage study (abstract only) and a Science article about a more recent chromosome linkage study.
Simon LeVay’s study comparing brains of gay men with men and women who were presumed straight.
Bailey and Pillard’s original study of gay male twins. A later study by Bailey et al. found lower rates of matching sexual orientation in twins and concluded that earlier studies rates were “inflated because of concordance-dependent ascertainment bias.”
Study of epigenetic markers in gay men, criticized for its statistics.
CREDITS
This episode of Undiscovered was reported and produced by Elah Feder and Annie Minoff. Editing by Christopher Intagliata. Fact-checking help from Michelle Harris. Original music by Daniel Peterschmidt. Our theme music is by I am Robot and Proud. Art for this episode by Claire Merchlinsky. Special thanks this week to Liat Fishman for translation from German, Shane McMillan for production help in Berlin, to Tobias Enzenhofer and Charles Bergquist for voice work. Thanks to Science Friday’s Danielle Dana, Christian Skotte, Brandon Echter, and Rachel Bouton.
50 Things That Made the Modern Economy - Passports
How much might global economic output rise if anyone could work anywhere? Some economists have calculated it would double. By the turn of the 20th century only a handful of countries were still insisting on passports to enter or leave. Today, migrant controls are back in fashion. It can seem like a natural fact of life that the name of the country on our passport determines where you can travel and work – legally, at least.
But it’s a relatively recent historical development – and, from a certain angle, an odd one. Many countries take pride in banning employers from discriminating against characteristics we can’t change: whether we’re male or female, young or old, gay or straight, black or white.
It’s not entirely true that we can’t change our passport: if you’ve got $250,000, for example, you can buy one from St Kitts and Nevis. But mostly our passport depends on the identity of our parents and location of our birth. And nobody chooses those.
Editors: Richard Knight and Richard Vadon
Producer: Ben Crighton
(Photo: Irish and UK passports are on display. Credit: Getty Images)